Strait
of Hormuz
Satellite image
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The
Strait of Hormuz (/hɔːrˈmuːz/
Persian: تنگهٔ هُرمُز
Tangeh-ye Hormoz listenⓘ, Arabic:
مَضيق هُرمُز Maḍīq Hurmuz) is a strait between the Persian
Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. It provides the Only sea passage from the Persian
Gulf to the open ocean and is one of the world's most strategically important
choke points.[1] On the north coast lies Iran, and on the south coast lies the
Musandam Peninsula, shared by the United Arab Emirates and the Musandam
Governorate, an exclave of Oman. The Strait is about 104 miles (90 nmi; 167 km)
long, with a width varying from about 60 mi (52 nmi; 97 km) to 24 mi (21 nmi;
39 km).[2][3]
As of 2023, 20% of the world's liquefied natural gas and 25% of seaborne oil trade passes
through the Strait, making it a highly important location for
trade.[4][3] It has been so for centuries; its vast hinterlands were rich in
luxury trade goods with no easy access to lucrative trading ports. Babur's
memoirs recount how almonds had to be carried from the distant Ferghana region
to Hormuz, to reach markets.[5]
As of
June 2025, the Strait has never been closed during Middle East conflicts,
unlike the Straits of Tiran.[6]
Etymology
The
strait of Hormuz may have been named after Ifera Hurmiz, the mother of King
Shapur II of Persia, who ruled between 309 and 379 AD.
The
opening to the Persian Gulf was described, but not given a name, in the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a 1st-century mariner's guide:
At the
upper end of these Calaei islands is a range of mountains called Calon, and
there follows not far beyond, the mouth of the Persian Gulf, where there is
much diving for the pearl-mussel. To the left of the straits are great
mountains called Asabon and to the right there rises in full view another round
and High Mountain called Semiramis; between them the passage across the strait
is about six hundred stadia; beyond which that very great and broad sea, the
Persian Gulf, reaches far into the interior. At the upper end of this gulf,
there is a market town designated by law called Apologus, situated near Charaex
Spasini and the River Euphrates.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
In the
10th–17th centuries AD, the Kingdom of Ormus, which seems to have given the
strait its name, was located here. Scholars, historians and linguists derive
the name "Ormuz" from the local Persian word هورمغ Hur-mogh
meaning date palm.[7] The resemblance of this word to the name of the
Zoroastrian god هرمز Hormoz (a variant of Ahura
Mazda) has resulted in the belief[citation needed] that these words are
related.
Navigation
To reduce
the risk of collision, ships moving through the Strait follow a traffic
separation scheme (TSS): inbound ships use one lane, outbound ships another,
each lane being two miles wide. The lanes are separated by a two-mile-wide
"median".[8]
To
traverse the Strait, ships pass through the territorial waters of Iran and Oman
under the transit passage provisions of the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea.[9] Although not all countries have ratified the convention,[10]
most countries, including the U.S.,[11] accept these customary navigation rules
as codified in the convention.
In 1959
Iran altered the legal status of the strait by expanding its territorial sea to
12 nmi (22 km) and declaring it would recognize only transit by innocent
passage through the newly expanded area.[12] In 1972, Oman also expanded its
territorial sea to 12 nmi (22 km) by decree.[12] Thus, by 1972, the Strait of
Hormuz was completely "closed" by the combined territorial waters of
Iran and Oman. During the 1970s, neither Iran or Oman attempted to impede the
passage of warships, but in the 1980s, both countries asserted claims that were
different from customary (old) law. Upon ratifying UNCLOS in 1989, Oman
submitted declarations confirming its 1981 royal decree that only innocent
passage is permitted through its territorial sea. The declarations further
asserted that prior permission was required before foreign warships could pass
through Omani territorial waters.[12] Upon signing the convention in 1982, Iran
entered a declaration stating "that only states parties to the Law of the
Sea Convention shall be entitled to benefit from the contractual rights created
therein", including "the right of transit passage through straits
used for international navigation". In 1993, Iran enacted a comprehensive
law on maritime areas, provisions of which conflict with UNCLOS provisions,
including a requirement that warships, submarines, and nuclear-powered ships
obtain permission before exercising innocent passage through Iran's territorial
waters. The US does not recognize any of the claims by Oman and Iran and has
contested each of them.[12]
Oman has
a radar site Link Quality Indicator (LQIto monitor the TSS in the Strait. This
site is on a small island on the peak of Musandam Governorate
Oil
trade flow
.png){kind=spacer}
Oil trade
through the strait by origin and destination, 2014–18
As of 2023,
20% of the world's liquefied natural gas and 25% of seaborne oil trade passes
through the Strait, making it a highly important location for trade.
According
to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, in 2011, an average of 14
tankers per day passed out of the Persian Gulf through the Strait carrying 17
million barrels (2,700,000 m3) of crude oil. More than 85% of these crude oil
exports went to Asian markets, with Japan, India, South Korea and China the
largest destinations.[9] In 2018, 21 million barrels a day passed through the
Strait, worth $1.2 billion at 2019 prices.
Events
Tanker
War
The
Tanker War phase of the Iran–Iraq War started when Iraq attacked the oil
terminal and oil tankers at Iran's Kharg Island in early 1984.[14][15] Saddam Hussein's
aim in attacking Iranian shipping was, among other things, to provoke the
Iranians to retaliate with extreme measures, such as closing the Strait of
Hormuz to all maritime traffic, thereby bringing American intervention.[14]
Iran limited the retaliatory attacks to Iraqi shipping, leaving the strait
open.[14]
Operation
Praying Mantis
Operation
Praying Mantis was an attack on 18 April 1988 by the United States Armed Forces
within Iranian territorial waters in retaliation for the Iranian naval mining
of international waters in the Persian Gulf during the Iran–Iraq War and the
subsequent damage to an American warship. The U.S. Navy attacked with several
groups of surface warships, plus aircraft from the aircraft carrier USS
Enterprise, and her cruiser escort, USS Truxtun. The attack began with
coordinated strikes by two surface groups.
Downing
of Iran Air 655
On 3 July
1988, 290 people were killed when an Iran Air Airbus A300 was shot down over
the strait by the United States Navy guided missile cruiser USS Vincennes
(CG-49) when it was wrongly identified as a jet fighter.
Collisions
USS Hartford and USS New Orleans collision
In
January 2007, the nuclear submarine USS Newport News, struck MV Mogamigawa, a
300,000-ton Japanese-flagged crude tanker, south of the strait.[16] There were
no injuries, and no oil leaked. On 20 March 2009, United States Navy Los
Angeles-class submarine USS Hartford collided with the San Antonio-class
amphibious transport dock USS New Orleans in the strait. The collision ruptured
a fuel tank aboard New Orleans, spilling 25,000 US gallons (95 m3) of marine
diesel fuel.
Iranian
navy problems
In May
2020, Iran launched missiles at one of their own ships in a friendly fire
accident, killing 19 sailors.[18] On 2 June 2021, the IRIS Kharg, a modified
Ol-class replenishment oiler of the Iran Navy, sank in the Strait of Hormuz
after catching fire. It was the navy's largest vessel.
On 4
January 2021, the Tasnim News Agency reported that a South Korea-flagged oil
vessel headed from Saudi Arabia to the United Arab Emirates was seized for
allegedly causing pollution violations. The ship was said to be carrying
roughly 7,000 tons of ethanol. South Korea refused to comment on the accusation
of causing oil pollution in the Strait of Hormuz. The ship, Hankuk Chemi, was
headed to the UAE port Fujairah after loading oil from Jubail, Saudi Arabia on
2 January 2021, as per ship-tracking data gathered by Bloomberg.[22]
US–Iran
disputes, threats to close the Strait
The guided-missile destroyer USS Porter transits the Strait of Hormuz in May 2012. Porter is deployed to the U.S. 5th Fleet
2008
Naval
stand-offs between Iranian speedboats and US warships in the Strait occurred in
December 2007 and January 2008. U.S. officials accused Iran of harassing and
provoking their naval vessels, but Iran denied the allegations. On 14 January,
U.S. Navy officials appeared to contradict the Pentagon version of the 16
January event, in which the Pentagon had reported that U.S. vessels had almost
fired on approaching Iranian boats. The Navy's regional commander, Vice Admiral
Kevin Cosgriff, said the Iranians had "neither anti-ship missiles nor
torpedoes" and he "wouldn't characterize the posture of the US 5th
Fleet as afraid of these small boats".[26] On 29 June, the commander of
Iran's Revolutionary Guard, Mohammad Ali Jafari, said that if either Israel or
the US attacked Iran, it would seal off the Strait to wreak havoc in the oil
markets. Cosgriff warned that such Iranian action would be considered an act of
war, and the U.S. would not allow Iran to hold hostage a third of the world's
oil supply.[27] On 8 July, Ali Shirazi, a mid-level clerical aide to Iran's
Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, was quoted telling the Revolutionary
Guards, "The Zionist regime is pressuring White House officials to attack
Iran. If they commit such a stupidity, Tel Aviv and U.S. shipping in the
Persian Gulf will be Iran's first targets and they will be burned."[28]
In the
last week of July, in Operation Brimstone,[29] dozens of US, and naval ships
from other countries, came to undertake joint exercises for possible military
activity in the shallow waters off the coast of Iran. By 11 August, more than
40 U.S. and allied ships were en route to the Strait.[30]
2011–12
2012
Strait of Hormuz dispute
On 27
December 2011, Iranian Vice President Mohammad Reza Rahimi threatened to cut off
oil supply from the strait should economic sanctions limit, or cut off, Iranian
oil exports.[31] A US Fifth Fleet spokeswoman said the Fleet was "always
ready to counter malevolent actions", whilst Admiral Habibollah Sayyari of
the Iran Navy claimed cutting off oil shipments would be "easy".[32]
Despite an initial 2% rise in oil prices, markets ultimately did not react
significantly to Iran's threat, with oil analyst Thorbjoern Bak Jensen
concluding "they cannot stop the flow for a longer period due to the
amount of U.S. hardware in the area".[33]
.jpg){kind=spacer}
The
guided-missile destroyer USS Porter transits the Strait of Hormuz in May 2012.
Porter is deployed to the U.S. 5th Fleet
On 3
January 2012, Iran threatened to take action if the U.S. Navy moved an aircraft
carrier back into the Persian Gulf. Iranian Army chief Ataollah Salehi said the
US had moved a carrier out of the Persian Gulf because of Iran's naval
exercises, and Iran would take action if the ship returned. "Iran will not
repeat its warning...the enemy's carrier has been moved to the Gulf of Oman
because of our drill. I recommend and emphasize to the American carrier not to
return to the Persian Gulf", he said.[34] U.S. Navy spokesman Commander
Bill Speaks responded that deployment of U.S. military assets would continue as
has been the custom stating: "The U.S. Navy operates under international
maritime conventions to maintain a constant state of high vigilance in order to
ensure the continued, safe flow of maritime traffic in waterways critical to
global commerce."[35] While earlier statements from Iran had little effect
on oil markets, coupled with new sanctions, later comments drove crude futures
higher, up over 4%. Pressure on prices reflected a combination of uncertainty
driven further by China's response – reducing oil January 2012 purchases from
Iran by 50% compared to 2011
By
January 2012, U.S.-led sanctions began to show economic effects, as the Iranian
currency lost 12% of its value. Further pressure on Iranian currency was added
by
On 9
January 2012, Iranian Defense Minister Ahmad Vahidi denied that Iran had ever
claimed it would close the Strait, saying, "Iran is the most important
provider of security in the Strait... if one threatens the security of the
Persian Gulf, then all are threatened."[37] Iran's Foreign Ministry
confirmed on 16 January it had received a letter from the US. Authorities were
considering whether to reply, although the contents of the letter were not
divulged.[38] The US had previously announced its intention to warn Iran that
closing the Strait is a "red line" that would provoke an American
response.[39] Gen. Martin E. Dempsey, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff,
said the US would "take action and re-open the Strait", which could
be accomplished only by military means, including minesweepers, warship escorts
and potentially airstrikes. Defense Secretary Leon E. Panetta told troops that
the US would not tolerate Iran closing the Strait. Nevertheless, Iran continued
to discuss the impact of shutting the Strait on oil markets, saying any
disruption of supply would cause a shock "no country" could manage
, seven
British warships, including the destroyer HMS Daring and 4 Type 23 frigates,
and a French warship, frigate La Mottons rose further after the European Union
imposed sanctions on Iranian oil.
2018 and
2019
In July
2018, Iran again made threats to close the Strait, citing looming American
sanctions after the U.S. withdrew from the JCPOA deal.[46] In August, Iran
test-fired a ballistic missile. According to the officials, the anti-ship
Fateh-110 Mod 3 flew over 100 miles on a flight path over the Strait to a test
range in the Iranian desert. "It was shore-to-shore", said a U.S.
official.[47]
On 22
April 2019, the U.S. ended the oil waivers, which had allowed some of Iran's
customers to import Iranian oil, without risking financial penalties as part of
U.S. economic sanctions. Aljazeera quoted Major-General Mohammad Bagheri of the
Iranian Armed Forces, stating "We are not after closing the Strait of Hormuz
but if the hostility of the enemies increases, we will be able to do so...[48]
If our oil does not pass, the oil of others shall not pass the Strait of Hormuz
either".[49]
2019
attacks on oil tankers
Iran has
persistently attacked vessels and seized ships amidst political issues.[25][50]
On 13 June 2019, the oil tankers Front Altair and Kokuka Courageous were rocked
by explosions shortly before dawn, the crew of the latter reported seeing a
flying object strike the ship; the crew were rescued by the destroyer USS
Bainbridge while the crew of the Front Altair were rescued by Iranian ships.
In July
2019, a Stena Bulk Tanker, Stena Impero, sailing under a British flag, was
boarded and captured by Iranian forces. The spokesman for Iran's Guardian
Council, Abbas Ali Kadkhodaei, was quoted as describing the seizure as a
"reciprocal action". This was presumed to be in reference to the
seizure of an Iranian tanker, Grace 1, bound for Syria in Gibraltar a few days
prior.
In 2020,
France deployed about 600 troops at sea and in the air under the CTF474 to
protect maritime trade, regional business, and to ease local tensions. Since
the first week of April 2020, the operation combines the Dutch frigate Ruyter,
the French frigate Forbin, and one French airplane ATLANTIC2 (ATL2).
2025
On 14
June, Iran reportedly issued a threat to block the Strait in response to
Israeli attacks targeting its military and nuclear infrastructure. The
Financial Times reported that such action could cause oil prices to surge
beyond the recent 7–14% increases, possibly exceeding $100 to $150 per
barrel.[57] This would likely fuel global inflation and contribute to an
economic downturn. Analysts emphasized the vulnerability of regional exporters,
noting that "Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq and Iran are wholly locked into
one tiny passage for exports." The Strait handles 18-19 million barrels
per day, nearly 20% of global oil consumption, including crude, condensates,
and fuel.[58][59] Analysts have warned that Iran could suffer severe
consequences from any attempt to block the Strait. "Iran's economy heavily
relies on the free passage of goods and vessels through the seaway, as its oil
exports are entirely sea-based," analysts from JP Morgan explained.
Closing the Strait could strain Iran’s crucial energy trade with China, its
only major oil customer U.S. Secretary of State Marco Rubio also warned Iran
against attempting to shut down the Strait, stating that such a move would be
"economic suicide" for the Islamic Republic, as the waterway is vital
for its exports.[61] On 17 June, two oil tankers collided in the Strait, though
reports did not suggest that this was a security-related incident. The vessels
involved were the Front Eagle, carrying crude oil from Iraq to China, and the
Adalynn, which was unladen and en route to the Suez Canal. Both caught fire on
deck, but no oil spill occurred. All crew members aboard the Adalynn were
safely evacuated by the UAE coast guard.
After the
United States strikes on Iranian nuclear sites on 22 June, the Iranian
Parliament voted to close the Strait. A final decision rests with Iran’s
Supreme National Security Council.[65] Revolutionary Guards commander Esmaeil
Kousari confirmed that shutting the Strait would be executed "whenever
necessary", to protect national sovereignty and deter further foreign
aggression. The potential closure of the Strait, through which 20% of the
world’s oil supply transits, would significantly disrupt global energy markets.
Such a move could cause oil prices to increase and risk destabilizing the
global economy, given the Strait's critical role as a maritime chokepoint for
crude oil, liquefied natural gas, and other petroleum products.[68] On 23 June
2025, oil prices were below $70 again (7% lower than on June 20), indicating
that the oil market viewed the US strikes, and Iran's response (the Strait
remaining open, and 2025 Iranian strikes on Al Udeid Air Base), as
inconsequential.
Ability
of Iran to hinder shipping
Millennium
Challenge 2002 was a major war game exercise conducted by US armed forces in
2002. It simulated an attempt by a country (likely to be Iran) to close the
Strait. The assumptions and results were controversial. Iran's simulated
strategy beat the materially superior US armed forces.
A 2008
article in International Security contended that Iran could seal off or impede
traffic in the Strait for a month, and an attempt by the U.S. to reopen it
would be likely to escalate the conflict.[71] In a later issue, however, the
journal published a response which questioned key assumptions and suggested a
much shorter timeline for re-opening.
In
December 2011, Iran's Navy began a ten-day exercise in international waters
along the Strait. Iranian Rear Admiral Habibollah Sayyari stated that the
Strait would not be closed during the exercise; Iranian forces could easily
accomplish that but such a decision must be made at a political level Captain
John Kirby, a Pentagon spokesman, was quoted in December 2011 saying:
"Efforts to increase tension in that part of the world are unhelpful and
counter-productive. For our part, we are comfortable that we have in the region
sufficient capabilities to honor our commitments to our friends and partners,
as well as the international community." Suzanne Maloney, an expert at the
Brookings Institution, said, "The expectation is that the U.S. military
could address any Iranian threat relatively quickly."[75] General Martin
Dempsey, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, said in 2012 that Iran
"has invested in capabilities that could, in fact, for a period of time
block the Strait of Hormuz." He stated, "We've invested in
capabilities to ensure that if that happens, we can defeat that."
A May
2012 article by Nilufer Oral, a Turkish researcher of maritime law, concludes
that both the UNCLOS and the 1958 Convention on the High Seas would be violated
if Iran followed through on its threat to block passage of vessels such as oil
tankers, and that the act of passage is not related in law to the imposition of
economic sanctions. The article further asserts that a coastal state may
prevent "transit or non-suspendable innocent passage" only if: 1)
there is threatened or actual use of force, occurring during passage, against
the sovereignty, territorial integrity, or political independence of a state
bordering the strait; or 2) the vessel in any other way violates the principles
of international law as embodied in the Charter of the United Nations.
As of
2013, the treaty had been ratified by 63 states, including most NATO-bloc and
Soviet-bloc nations but with the notable exceptions of most of the OPEC and
Arab League nations like Syria, Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and Iran, as well
as China, North Korea, and South Korea.[78]
Alternative
shipping routes
Map of
the Habshan–Fujairah oil pipeline and the East-West Crude Oil Pipeline
In June
2012, Saudi Arabia reopened the Iraq Pipeline through Saudi Arabia (IPSA),
which was confiscated from Iraq in 2001 and travels from Iraq across Saudi
Arabia to a Red Sea port. It will have a capacity of 1.65 million barrels
(262,000 m3) per day.
In July
2012, the UAE began using the new Habshan–Fujairah oil pipeline from the
Habshan fields in Abu Dhabi to the Fujairah oil terminal on the Gulf of Oman,
effectively bypassing the Strait of Hormuz. It has a maximum capacity of around
2 million barrels (320,000 m3) per day, over three-quarters of the UAE's 2012
production rate. The UAE is also increasing Fujairah's storage and off-loading
capacities.[79][80] The UAE is building the world's largest crude oil storage
facility in Fujairah with a capacity of holding 14 million barrels (2,200,000
m3) to enhance Fujairah's growth as a global oil and trading hub.[81] The
Habshan – Fujairah route secures the UAE's energy security and has the
advantage of being a ground oil pipeline transportation which is considered the
cheapest form of oil transportation and also reduces insurance costs as oil
tankers would no longer enter the Persian Gulf.
In a July
2012 Foreign Policy article, Gal Luft compared Iran and the Strait of Hormuz to
the Ottoman Empire and the Dardanelles, a choke point for shipments of Russian
grain a century ago. He indicated that tensions involving the Strait of Hormuz
are leading those currently dependent on shipments from the Persian Gulf to
find alternative shipping capabilities. He stated that Saudi Arabia was
considering building new pipelines to Oman and Yemen, and that Iraq might
revive the disused Iraq–Syria pipeline to transport crude oil to the
Mediterranean. Luft stated that reducing Hormuz traffic "presents the West
with a new opportunity to augment its current Iran containment strategy."
With
affection,
Ruben
No comments:
Post a Comment