Historical stories 1-c
What is history? A simple fable that we have all accepted (Napoleon)
First Opium War
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The First Opium War (Chinese: 第一次鴉片戰爭), also known as the Opium War
or the Anglo-Chinese War, was a series of military engagements fought
between the United
Kingdom and the Qing
dynasty of China over their conflicting viewpoints on diplomatic relations,
trade, and the administration of justice in China.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the demand for Chinese goods
(particularly silk, porcelain, and tea) in Europe created a trade imbalance
between Qing Imperial China and Great Britain. European
silver flowed into China through the Canton
System, which confined incoming foreign trade to the southern port city of Canton. To counter
this imbalance, the British East India Company began to
auction opium grown in India to independent foreign traders in
exchange for silver, and in doing so strengthened its trading influence in
Asia. This opium was transported to the Chinese coast, where local middlemen
made massive profits selling the drug inside China. The influx of narcotics
reversed the Chinese trade
surplus, drained the economy of silver, and increased the numbers of opium
addicts inside the country, outcomes that worried Chinese officials.
In 1839, the Daoguang
Emperor, rejecting proposals to legalize and tax opium, appointed viceroy Lin
Zexu to solve the problem by completely banning the opium trade (various
forms of opium had been prohibited in China since 1729)[8] without
offering compensation and ordered a blockade of foreign trade in Canton. Lin
confiscated 20,283 chests of opium (approximately 1210 tons or
2.66 million pounds)[9] after
confining the foreign traders to the Canton
Factories and cutting off their supplies. The British
government did not question China's right to prohibit opium, but it objected to
the way this was handled; it viewed the sudden strict enforcement as laying a
trap for the traders, and the confinement of the British with their supplies
cut off was tantamount to starving them into submission or death. They
dispatched a military force to China and in the ensuing conflict, the Royal
Navy used its naval and gunnery power to inflict a series of decisive
defeats on the Chinese Empire, a tactic later referred to as gunboat diplomacy.
Trade benefited after the newly-risen Qing
dynasty relaxed maritime trade restrictions in the 1680s. Taiwan came under
Qing control in 1683 and rhetoric regarding the tributary status of Europeans
was muted.[16] Guangzhou (known as
Canton to Europeans) became the port of preference for incoming foreign trade.
Ships did try to call at other ports, but these locations could not match the
benefits of Canton's geographic position at the mouth of the Pearl River, nor did they
have the city's long experience in balancing the demands of Beijing with those of
Chinese and foreign merchants.From 1700 onward Canton was the center of
maritime trade with China, and this market process was gradually formulated by
Qing authorities into the "Canton
System From the system's inception in 1757, trading in China was extremely
lucrative for European and Chinese merchants alike as goods such as tea,
porcelain, and silk were valued highly enough in Europe to justify the expenses
of traveling to Asia. The system was highly regulated by the Qing government.
Foreign traders were only permitted to do business through a body of Chinese
merchants known as the Cohong and were
forbidden to learn Chinese. Foreigners could only live in one of the Thirteen Factories and were not
allowed to enter or trade in any other part of China. Only low level government
officials could be dealt with and the imperial court could not be lobbied for
any reason excepting official diplomatic missions.[19] The Imperial
laws that upheld the system were collectively known as the Prevention Barbarian
Ordinances (防范外夷規條).[20] The Cohong
were particularly powerful in the Old
China Trade, as they were tasked with appraising the value of
foreign products, purchasing or rebuffing said imports, and charged with
selling Chinese exports at an appropriate price.[21] The Cohong was
made up of between (depending on the politics of Canton) 6 to 20 merchant
families. Most of the merchant houses these families ruled had been established
by low-ranking mandarins, but several were Cantonese or Han in origin.[22] Another key
function of the Cohong was the traditional bond signed between a Cohong member
and a foreign merchant. This bond stated that the receiving Cohong member was responsible
for the foreign merchant's behavior and cargo while in China.[23] In addition to
dealing with the Cohong, European merchants were required to pay customs fees,
measurement duties, provide gifts, and hire navigators.[23]
Despite restrictions, silk and porcelain continued to drive trade
through their popularity in Europe, and an insatiable demand for Chinese tea
existed in Britain. From the mid-17th century onward around 28 million
kilograms of silver were received by China, principally from European powers,
in exchange for Chinese product
The Qing imperial court debated whether or how to end the opium trade, but their efforts to curtail opium abuse were complicated by local officials and the Cohong, who profited greatly from the bribes and taxes involved in the narcotics trade. Efforts by Qing officials to curb opium imports through regulations on consumption resulted in an increase in drug smuggling by European and Chinese traders, and corruption was rampant. In 1810, the Daoguang Emperor issued an edict concerning the opium crisis, declaring,
Opium has a harm. Opium is a poison, undermining our good customs and morality. Its use is prohibited by law. Now the commoner, Yang, dares to bring it into the Forbidden City. Indeed, he flouts the law!
However, recently the purchasers, eaters, and consumers of opium have become numerous. Deceitful merchants buy and sell it to gain profit. The customs house at the Ch'ung-wen Gate was originally set up to supervise the collection of imports (it had no responsibility with regard to opium smuggling). If we confine our search for opium to the seaports, we fear the search will not be sufficiently thorough. We should also order the general commandant of the police and police- censors at the five gates to prohibit opium and to search for it at all gates. If they capture any violators, they should immediately punish them and should destroy the opium at once. As to Kwangtung [Guangdong] and Fukien [Fujian], the provinces from which opium comes, we order their viceroys, governors, and superintendents of the maritime customs to conduct a thorough search for opium, and cut off its supply. They should in no ways consider this order a dead letter and allow opium to be smuggled out.
Reaction in Britain
Parliamentary debates
Following the Chinese crackdown on the opium trade, discussion arose as to how Britain would respond, as the public in the United States and Britain had previously expressed outrage that Britain was supporting the opium trade.[99] Many British citizens sympathized with the Chinese and wanted to halt the sale of opium, while others want to contain or regulate the international narcotics trade. However, a great deal of anger was expressed over the treatment of British diplomats and towards the protectionist trading policies of Qing China. The Whig controlled government in particular advocated for war with China, and the pro-Whig press printed stories about Chinese "despotism and cruelty."[100]Since August 1839, reports had been published in London newspapers about troubles at Canton and the impending war with China. The Queen's Annual Address to the House of Lords on 16 January 1840 expressed the concern that "Events have happened in China which have occasioned an interruption of the commercial intercourse of my subjects with that country. I have given, and shall continue to give, the most serious attention to a matter so deeply affecting the interests of my subjects and the dignity of my Crown.".[101] The Whig Melbourne Government was then in a weak political situation. On a motion of non-confidence moved in the House of Commons by the Tory Opposition John Buller, the Government survived the vote on 31 January 1840 by a majority of 21 (308 votes against vs 287 votes for). The Tories saw the China Question as a good opportunity to beat the Government, and James Graham moved a motion on 7 April 1840 in the House of Commons, censuring the Government not on the impending war with China nor the opium trade, but on the Government's "want of foresight and precaution" and "their neglect to furnish the superintendent at Canton with powers and instructions" to deal with the opium trade.[102] This was a deliberate move of the Tories to avoid the sensitive issues of war and opium trade and to obtain maximum support for the motion within the party.
Calls for military action were met with mixed responses when the matter went before Parliament. Foreign Secretary Palmerston, a politician known for his aggressive foreign policy and advocacy for free trade, led the pro war camp. Palmerston strongly believed that the destroyed opium should be considered property, not contraband, and as such reparations had to be made for its destruction. He justified military action by saying that no one could "say that he honestly believed the motive of the Chinese Government to have been the promotion of moral habits" and that the war was being fought to stem China's balance of payments deficit.[99] After consulting with William Jardine, the foreign secretary drafted a letter to Prime Minister William Melbourne calling for a military response. Other merchants called for an opening of free trade with China, and it was commonly cited that the Chinese consumers were the driving factor of the opium trade. The periodic expulsion of British merchants from Canton and the refusal of the Qing government to treat Britain as a diplomatic equal were seen as a slight to national pride.[104] Few Tory or liberal politicians supported the war. Sir James Graham, Lord Phillip Stanhope, and future Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone headed the anti-war faction in Britain, and denounced the ethics of the opium trade. After three days of debate, the vote was taken on Graham's motion on 9 April 1840, which was defeated by a majority of only 9 votes (262 votes for vs 271 votes against ). The Tories in the House of Commons thus failed to deter the Government from proceeding with the war and stop the British warships already on their way to China. A similar motion moved by Earl Stanhope in the House of Lords on 12 May 1840 also failed to pass. The House of Commons finally agreed on 27 July 1840 to a resolution of granting £173,442 for the expenses of the expedition to China, long after the war with China had broken out.
Cabinet Decision and Palmerston letters
Under strong pressure and lobbying from various trade and manufacturer associations, the Whig cabinet under Prime Minister Melbourne decided on 1 October 1839 to send an expedition to China.War preparations then began.In early November 1839, the Foreign Secretary Palmerston instructed Auckland, Governor General of India, to prepare military forces for deployment in China. On 20 February 1840 Palmerston (who remained unaware of the First Battle of Chuenpi in November 1839) drafted two letters detailing the British response to the situation in China. One letter was addressed to the Elliots, the other to the Daoguang Emperor and the Qing government. The letter to the Emperor informed China that Great Britain had sent a military expeditionary force to the Chinese coast. In the letter, Palmerston stated that,
These measures of hostility on the part of Great Britain against China are not only justified, but even rendered absolutely necessary, by the outrages which have been committed by the Chinese Authorities against British officers and Subjects, and these hostilities will not cease, until a satisfactory arrangement shall have been made by the Chinese Government.
In his letter to the Elliots, Palmerston instructed the commanders to set up a blockade of the Pearl River and forward to a Chinese official the letter from Palmerston addressing the Chinese Emperor. They were to then capture the Chusan Islands, blockade the mouth of the Yangtze River, start negotiations with Qing officials, and finally sail the fleet into the Bohai Sea, where they would send another copy of the aforementioned letter to Beijing.[108] Palmerston also issued a list of objectives that the British government wanted accomplished, with said objectives being:
- Demand to be treated with the respect due to a royal envoy by the Qing authorities.
- Secure the right of the British superintendent to administer justice to British subjects in China.
- Seek recompense for destroyed British property.
- Gain most favoured trading status with the Chinese government.
- Request the right for foreigners to safely inhabit and own private property in China.
- Ensure that, if contraband is seized in accordance with Chinese law, no harm comes to the person(s) of British subjects carrying illicit goods in China.
- End the system by which British merchants are restricted to trading solely in Canton.
Ask that the cities of Canton, Amoy,
Shanghai, Ningpo, and the province of northern Formosa be
freely opened to trade from all foreign powers.
- Secure island(s) along the Chinese coast that can be easily defended and provisioned, or exchange captured islands for favourable trading terms.
To sum up in a few words the result of this Instruction, you will see, from what I have stated, that the British Government demands from that of China satisfaction for the past and security for the future; and does not choose to trust to negotiation for obtaining either of these things; but has sent out a Naval and Military Force with orders to begin at once to take the Measures necessary for attaining the object in view.[108War
Opening moves
Engagement between British and Chinese ships in the
First Battle of Chuenpi, 1839.
The Chinese naval forces in Canton were under the
command of Admiral Guan Tianpei, who had fought the British at Chuenpi. The Qing southern army and
garrisons were under the command of General
Yang Fang. Overall command was invested in the Daoguang Emperor
and his court The Chinese government initially believed that, as in the 1834
Napier Affair, the British had been successfully expelled. Few preparations
were made for a British reprisal, and the events leading to the eventual
outbreak of the Sino-Sikh War in 1841 were seen as a greater cause for concern. Left without a major base of operations in China, the British withdrew their merchant shipping from the region while maintaining the Royal Navy's China squadron in the islands around the mouth of the Pearl River. From London, Palmerston continued to dictate operations in China, ordering the East India Company to divert troops from India in preparation for a limited war against the Chinese. It was decided that the war would not be fought as a full-scale conflict, but rather as a expedition. Superintendent Elliot remained in charge of Britain's interests in China, while Commodore James Bremer led the Royal Marines and the China Squadron. Major General Hugh Gough was selected to command the British land forces, and was promoted to overall commander of British forces in China. The cost of the war would be paid by the British Government.[Per Lord Palmerston's letter, plans were drawn up by the British to launch a series of attacks on Chinese ports and rivers.
British plans to form an expeditionary were started immediately after the January 1840 vote. Several infantry regiments were raised in the British Isles, and the completion of ships already under construction was expedited. To conduct the upcoming war, Britain also began to draw on forces from its overseas empire. British India had been preparing for a war since word had arrived that the opium had been destroyed, and several regiments of Bengali volunteers had been recruited to supplement the regular British Indian Army and East India Company forces. In terms of naval forces, the ships earmarked for the expedition were either posted in remote colonies or under repair, and Oriental Crisis of 1840 (and the resulting risk of war between Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire over Syria) drew the attention of the Royal Navy's european fleets away from China. Orders were dispatched to British South Africa and Australia to send ships to Singapore, the assigned rendezvous point for the expedition. A number of steamers were purchased by the Royal Navy and attached to the expedition as transports. The unseasonable summer weather of India and the Strait of Malacca slowed the British deployment, and a number of accidents decreased the combat readiness of the expedition. Most notably, both of the 74-gun ships of the line that the Royal Navy intended to use against Chinese fortifications were temporarily put out of action by hull damage.[119] Despite these delays, by mid-June 1840 British forces had begun to assemble in Singapore. While they waited for more ships to arrive, the Royal Marines practiced amphibious invasions on the beach, first by landing ashore in boats, then forming lines and advancing on mock fortifications.
British offensive begins
Capture of Chusan, July 1840
In late June 1840 the first part of the expeditionary
force arrived in China aboard 15 barracks ships, four steam-powered gunboats
and 25 smaller boats. The flotilla was under the command of Commodore Bremer.
The British issued an ultimatum demanding the Qing Government pay compensation
for losses suffered from interrupted trade and the destruction of opium, but
were rebuffed by the Qing authorities in Canton. In his letters, Palmerston had instructed the joint plenipotentiaries Elliot and his cousin Admiral George Elliot to acquire the cession of at least one island for trade on the Chinese coast.With the British expeditionary force now in place, a combined naval and ground assault was launched on the Chusan Archipelago. Zhoushan Island, the largest and best defended of the islands was the primary target for the attack, as was its vital port of Dinghai. When the British fleet arrived off of Zhoushan, Elliot demanded the city surrender. The commander of the Chinese garrison refused the command, stating that he could not surrender and questioning what reason the British had for harassing Dinghai, as they had been driven out of Canton.[123] Fighting began, a fleet of 12 small junks were destroyed by the Royal navy, and British marines captured the hills to the south of the Dinghai. The British captured the city itself after an intense naval bombardment on 5 July forced the surviving Chinese defenders to withdraw.The British occupied Dinghai harbor and prepared to use it as a staging point for operations in China. In the fall of 1840 disease broke out in the Dinghai garrison, forcing the British to evacuate soldiers to Manila and Calcutta. By the beginning of 1841 only 1900 of the 3300 men who had originally occupied Dinghai were left, with many of those remaining incapable of fighting. An estimated 500 British soldiers died from disease, with the Cameron and Bengali volunteers suffering the most deaths, while the Royal Marines were relatively unscathed.
Having captured Dinghai, the British expedition divided its forces, sending one fleet south to the Pearl River while sending a second fleet north to the Yellow Sea. The northern fleet sailed to Peiho, where Elliot personally presented Palmerston's letter to the Emperor to Qing authorities from the capital. Qishan , a high-ranking Manchu official, was selected by the Imperial Court to replace Lin as the Viceroy of Liangguang after the latter was discharged for his failure to resolve the opium situation.[125] Negotiations began between the two sides, with Qishan serving as the primary negotiator for the Qing and Elliot serving as the representative for the British Crown. After a week of negotiations, Qishan and Elliot agreed to relocate to the Pearl River for further negotiations. In return for the courtesy of the British to withdraw from the Yellow Sea, Qishan promised to requisition imperial funds as restitution for British merchants who had suffered damages. The war, however, was not concluded and both sides continued to engage each other. In the late spring of 1841 reinforcements arrived from India in preparation for an offensive against Canton. A flotilla of transports brought 600 men of the professionally-trained 37th Madras Native Infantry to Dinghai, where their arrival boosted British morale. Accompanying the fleet as far as Macau was the newly constructed iron steamer HMS Nemesis, a weapon to which the Chinese navy had no effective counter.[126] On 19 August three British warships and 380 marines drove the Chinese from the land bridge (known as "The Barrier") separating Macau from the Chinese mainland. The defeat of the Qing soldiers coupled with the arrival of the Nemesis in Macau's harbor resulted in a wave of pro-British support in the city, and several Qing officials were driven out or killed. Portugal remained neutral in the conflict, but after the battle was willing to allow British ships to dock in Macau, a decision that granted the British a functioning port in Southern China. With the strategic harbors of Dinghai and Macau secured, the British began to focus on the war on the Pearl River. Five months after the British victory at Chusan, the northern elements of the expedition sailed south to Humen, known to the British as The Bogue. Bremer judged that gaining control of the Pearl River and Canton would put the British in a strong negotiating position with the Qing authorities, as well as allow for the renewal of trade when the war ended.
With affection,
Ruben
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