Great
Pyramid of Giza
David Stanley
Source:
World History Enyclopedia
By Joshua
J Mark
Wikipedia Encyclopedia Free
The Great
Pyramid of Giza is a defining symbol of Egypt and the last of the ancient Seven
Wonders of the World. It is located on the Giza plateau near the modern city of
Cairo and was built over a twenty-year period during the reign of the king
Khufu (2589-2566 BCE, also known as Cheops) of the 4th Dynasty.
Postal card 19 century
Until the
Eiffel Tower was completed in Paris, France in 1889, the Great Pyramid was the
tallest structure made by human hands in the world; a record it held for over
3,000 years and one unlikely to be broken. Other scholars have pointed to the
Lincoln Cathedral spire in England, built in 1300, as the structure which
finally surpassed the Great Pyramid in height but, still, the Egyptian monument
held the title for an impressive span of time.
The
pyramid rises to a height of 479 feet (146 metres) with a base of 754 feet (230
metres) and is comprised of over two million blocks of stone. Some of these
stones are of such immense size and weight (such as the granite slabs in the
King's Chamber) that the logistics of raising and positioning them so precisely
seems an impossibility by modern standards.
The
pyramid was first excavated using modern techniques and scientific analysis in
1880 by Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie (l.1853-1942), the British
archaeologist who set the standard for archaeological operations in Egypt
generally and at Giza specifically. Writing on the pyramid in 1883, Flinders
Petrie noted:
The Great
Pyramid has lent its name as a sort of by-word for paradoxes; and, as moths to
a candle, so are theorisers attracted to it. (1)
Although
many theories persist as to the purpose of the pyramid, the most widely
accepted understanding is that it was constructed as a tomb for king KHUFU.
Although
many theories persist as to the purpose of the pyramid, the most widely
accepted understanding is that it was constructed as a tomb for the king.
Exactly how it was built, however, still puzzles people in the modern day. The
theory of ramps running around the outside of the structure to move the blocks
into place is still debated by historians. So-called "fringe" or
"New Age" theories abound, in an effort to explain the advanced
technology required for the structure, citing extra-terrestrials and their
imagined frequent visits to Egypt in antiquity.
These
theories continue to be advanced in spite of the increasing body of evidence
substantiating that the pyramid was built by the ancient Egyptians using
technological means which, most likely, were so common to them that they felt
no need to record them. Still, the intricacy of the interior passages, shafts,
and chambers (The King's Chamber, Queen's Chamber, and Grand Gallery) as well
as the nearby Osiris Shaft, coupled with the mystery of how the pyramid was
built at all and its orientation to cardinal points, encourages the persistence
of these fringe theories.
Another
enduring theory regarding the monument's construction is that it was built on
the backs of slaves. Contrary to the popular opinion that Egyptian monuments in
general, and the Great Pyramid in particular, were built using Hebrew slave
labor, the pyramids of Giza and all other temples and monuments in the country
were constructed by Egyptians who were hired for their skills and compensated
for their efforts. No evidence of any kind whatsoever - from any era of Egypt's
history - supports the narrative events described in the biblical Book of
Exodus.
Worker's
housing at Giza was discovered and fully documented in 1979 by Egyptologists
Lehner and Haws but, even before this evidence came to light, ancient
Egyptian documentation substantiated payment to Egyptian workers for
state-sponsored monuments while offering no evidence of forced labor by a slave
population of any particular ethnic group. Egyptians from all over the country
worked on the monument, for a variety of reasons, to build an eternal home for
their king which would last through eternity.
Pyramids
& the Giza Plateau
Toward
the end of the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3150-c.2613 BCE) the vizier Imhotep
((c. 2667-2600 BCE) devised a means of creating an elaborate tomb, unlike any
other, for his king Djoser. Prior to Djoser's reign (c. 2670 BCE) tombs were
constructed of mud fashioned into modest mounds known as mastabas. Imhotep
conceived of a then-radical plan of not only building a mastaba out of stone
but of stacking these structures on top of one another in steps to create an
enormous, lasting, monument. His vision led to the creation of Djoser's Step
Pyramid at Saqqara, still standing in the present day, the oldest pyramid in
the world.
Still,
the Step Pyramid was not a "true pyramid" and, in the period of the
Old Kingdom (c. 2613-2181 BCE) the king Sneferu (r.c. 2613-2589 BCE) sought to
improve on Imhotep's plans and create an even more impressive monument. His
first attempt, the Collapsed Pyramid at Meidum, failed because he departed too
widely from Imhotep's design. Sneferu learned from his mistake, however, and
went to work on another - the Bent Pyramid - which also failed because of
miscalculations in the angle from base to summit. Undeterred, Sneferu took what
he learned from that experience and built the Red Pyramid, the first true
pyramid constructed in Egypt.
.webp)
Great Pyramid of Giza Artist impression
Building
a pyramid required enormous resources and the maintenance of a wide array of
all kinds of skilled and unskilled workers. The kings of the 4th Dynasty -
often referred to as "the pyramid builders" - were able to command
these resources because of the stability of the government and the wealth they
were able to acquire through trade. A strong central government, and a surplus
of wealth, were both vital to any efforts at pyramid building and these
resources were passed from Sneferu, upon his death, to his son Khufu.
Khufu
seems to have set to work on building his grand tomb shortly after coming to
power. The rulers of the Old Kingdom governed from the city of Memphis and the
nearby necropolis of Saqqara was already dominated by Djoser's pyramid complex
while other sites such as Dashur had been used by Sneferu. An older necropolis,
however, was also close by and this was Giza. Khufu's mother, Hetepheres I
(l.c. 2566 BCE), was buried there and there were no other great monuments to
compete for attention close by; so Khufu chose Giza as the site for his
pyramid.
Construction
of the Pyramid
History
of dating Khufu and the Great Pyramid
Circa 450
BC Herodotus attributed the Great Pyramid to Cheops (Hellenization of Khufu),
yet erroneously placed his reign following the Ramesside period. Manetho,
around 200 years later, composed an extensive list of Egyptian kings, which he
divided into dynasties, assigning Khufu to the 4th. However, after phonetic
changes in the Egyptian language and consequently the Greek translation,
"Cheops" had transformed into "Souphis" (and similar
versions).[60]
Greaves,
in 1646, reported the great difficulty of ascertaining a date for the pyramid's
construction based on the lacking and conflicting historic sources. Because of
the differences in spelling, he did not recognize Khufu on Manetho's king list
(as transcribed by Africanus and Eusebius),[61][full citation needed] hence he
relied on Herodotus' incorrect account. Summating the duration of lines of
succession, Greaves concluded 1266 BC to be the beginning of Khufu's reign.[42]
Two
centuries later, some of the gaps and uncertainties in Manetho's chronology had
been cleared by discoveries such as the King Lists of Turin, Abydos, and
Karnak. The names of Khufu found within the Great Pyramid's relieving chambers
in 1837 helped to make clear that Cheops and Souphis are one and the same. Thus
the Great Pyramid was recognized to have been built in the 4th dynasty.[44] The
dating among Egyptologists still varied by multiple centuries (around 4000–2000
BC), depending on methodology, preconceived religious notions (such as the
biblical deluge) and which source they thought was more credible.
Estimates
significantly narrowed in the 20th century, most being within 250 years of each
other, around the middle of the third millennium BC. The newly developed
radiocarbon dating method confirmed that the historic chronology was
approximately correct. It is still not a perfectly accurate method due to
larger margins of error, calibration uncertainties and the problem of inbuilt
age (time between growth and final usage) in plant material, including
wood.[55] Astronomical alignments have also been suggested to coincide with the
time of construction.[49][52]
Egyptian
chronology continues to be refined and data from multiple disciplines have
started to be factored in, such as luminescence dating, radiocarbon dating, and
dendrochronology. For instance, Ramsey et al. included over 200 radiocarbon
samples in their model.
Historiographical
record
Classical
antiquity
Herodotus
The Greek
historian Herodotus was one of the first major authors to discuss the Great
Pyramid.
The
ancient Greek historian Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BC, is one of the
first major authors to mention the pyramid. In the second book of his work The
Histories, he discusses the history of Egypt and the Great Pyramid. This report
was created more than 2000 years after the structure was built, meaning that
Herodotus obtained his knowledge mainly from a variety of indirect sources,
including officials and priests of low rank, local Egyptians, Greek immigrants,
and Herodotus's own interpreters. Accordingly, his explanations present
themselves as a mixture of comprehensible descriptions, personal descriptions,
erroneous reports, and fantastical legends; as a result, many of the
speculative errors and confusions about the monument can be traced back to
Herodotus and his work.[62][63]
Herodotus
writes that the Great Pyramid was built by Khufu (Hellenized as Cheops) who, he
erroneously relays, ruled after the Ramesside Period (the 19th dynasty and the
20th dynasty).[64] Khufu was a tyrannical king, Herodotus claims, which may
explain the Greek's view that such buildings can only come about through cruel
exploitation of the people.[62] Herodotus states that gangs of 100,000
labourers worked on the building in three-month shifts, taking 20 years to
build. In the first ten years a wide causeway was erected, which, according to
Herodotus, was almost as impressive as the construction of the pyramids
themselves. It measured nearly 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) long and 20 yards (18.3 m)
wide, and elevated to a height of 16 yards (14.6 m), consisting of stone
polished and carved with figures.[65]
Underground
chambers were made on the hill where the pyramids stand. These were intended to
be burial places for Khufu himself and were supplied with water by a channel
brought in from the Nile.[65] Herodotus later states that at the Pyramid of
Khafre (beside the Great Pyramid) the Nile flows through a built passage to an
island in which Khufu is buried.[66] Hawass interprets this to be a reference
to the "Osiris Shaft", which is located at the causeway of Khafre,
south of the Great Pyramid.[67][68]
Herodotus
described an inscription on the outside of the pyramid, which, according to his
translators, indicated the amount of radishes, garlic and onions that the
workers would have eaten while working on the pyramid.[69] This could be a note
of restoration work that Khaemweset, son of Rameses II, had carried out.
Apparently, Herodotus' companions and interpreters could not read the
hieroglyphs or deliberately gave him false information.[70]
.jpg)
Diodorus
Siculus
Between
60 and 56 BC, the ancient Greek historian Diodorus Siculus visited Egypt and
later dedicated the first book of his Bibliotheca historica to the land, its
history, and its monuments, including the Great Pyramid. Diodorus's work was
inspired by historians of the past, but he also distanced himself from
Herodotus, who Diodorus claims tells marvellous tales and myths.[71] Diodorus
presumably drew his knowledge from the lost work of Hecataeus of Abdera,[72]
and like Herodotus, he also places the builder of the pyramid,
"Chemmis",[73] after Ramses III.[64] According to his report, neither
Chemmis (Khufu) nor Cephren (Khafre) were buried in their pyramids, but rather
in secret places, for fear that the people ostensibly forced to build the
structures would seek out the bodies for revenge.[74] With this assertion,
Diodorus strengthened the connection between pyramid building and slavery.[75]
According
to Diodorus, the cladding of the pyramid was still in excellent condition at
the time, whereas the uppermost part of the pyramid was formed by a platform 6
cubits (3.1 m; 10.3 ft) high. About the construction of the pyramid he notes
that it was built with the help of ramps since no lifting tools had yet been
invented. Nothing was left of the ramps, as they were removed after the
pyramids were completed. He estimated the number of workers necessary to erect
the Great Pyramid at 360,000 and the construction time at 20 years.[73] Similar
to Herodotus, Diodorus also claims that the side of the pyramid is inscribed
with writing that "[set] forth [the price of] vegetables and purgatives
for the workmen there were paid out over sixteen hundred talents."[74]
.jpg)
Strabo
The Greek
geographer, philosopher, and historian Strabo visited Egypt around 25 BC,
shortly after Egypt was annexed by the Romans. In his work Geographica, he
argues that the pyramids were the burial place of kings, but he does not
mention which king was buried in the structure. Strabo also mentions: "At
a moderate height in one of the sides is a stone, which may be taken out; when
that is removed, there is an oblique passage to the tomb."[76] This
statement has generated much speculation, as it suggests that the pyramid could
be entered at this time.[77]
.jpg)
Pliny
the Elder
During
the Roman Empire, Pliny the Elder argues that "bridges" were used to
transport stones to the top of the Great Pyramid.
The Roman
writer Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, argued that the Great
Pyramid had been raised, either "to prevent the lower classes from
remaining unoccupied", or as a measure to prevent the pharaoh's riches
from falling into the hands of his rivals or successors.[78] Pliny does not speculate
as to the pharaoh in question, explicitly noting that "accident [has]
consigned to oblivion the names of those who erected such stupendous memorials
of their vanity".
In
pondering how the stones could be transported to such a vast height he gives
two explanations: That either vast mounds of nitre and salt were heaped up
against the pyramid, which were then melted away with water redirected from the
river. Or, that "bridges" were constructed, their bricks afterwards
distributed for erecting houses, arguing that the level of the river is too low
for canals to bring water up to the pyramid. Pliny also recounts how "in
the interior of the largest Pyramid there is a well, eighty-six cubits [45.1 m;
147.8 ft] deep, which communicates with the river, it is thought". He also
describes a method discovered by Thales of Miletus for ascertaining the
pyramid's height by measuring its shadow.
Great Pyramid Reconstructed
The
vizier was the final architect of any building project and had to delegate
responsibility for materials, transport, labor, payments and any other aspect
of the work. Written receipts, letters, diary entries, official reports to and
from the palace all make clear that a great building project was accomplished
at Giza under Khufu's reign but not one of these pieces of evidence suggest
exactly how the pyramid was created. The technological skill evident in the
creation of the Great Pyramid still mystifies scholars, and others, in the
present day. Egyptologists Bob Brier and Hoyt Hobbs comment on this:
Because
of their immense size, building pyramids posed special problems of both
organization and engineering. Constructing the Great Pyramid of the pharaoh
Khufu, for example, required that more than two million blocks weighing from
two to more than sixty tons be formed into a structure covering two football fields
and rising in a perfect pyramidal shape 480 feet into the sky. Its construction
involved vast numbers of workers which, in turn, presented complex logistical
problems concerning food, shelter, and organization. Millions of heavy stone
blocks needed not only to be quarried and raised to great heights but also set
together with precision in order to create the desired shape. (217)
The Pyramids, Giza, Egipt
It is
precisely the skill and technology required to "create the desired
shape" which presents the problem to anyone trying to understand how the
Great Pyramid was built. Modern-day theories continue to fall back on the
concept of ramps which were raised around the foundation of the pyramid and
grew higher as the structure grew taller. The ramp theory, still debated,
maintains that, once the foundation was firm, these ramps could have easily
been raised around the structure as it was built and provided the means for
hauling and positioning tons of stones in precise order.
Aside
from the problems of a lack of wood in Egypt to make an abundance of such
ramps, the angles workers would have had to move the stones up, and the
impossibility of moving heavy stone bricks and granite slabs into position
without a crane (which the Egyptians did not have), the most serious problem
comes down to the total impracticability of the ramp theory. Brier and Hobbs
explain:
The
problem is one of physics. The steeper the angle of an incline, the more effort
necessary to move an object up that incline. So, in order for a relatively
small number of men, say ten or so, to drag a two-ton load up a ramp, its angle
could not be more than about eight percent. Geometry tells us that to reach a
height of 480 feet, an inclined plane rising at eight percent would have to
start almost one mile from its finish. It has been calculated that building a
mile-long ramp that rose as high as the Great Pyramid would require as much
material as that needed for the pyramid itself - workers would have had to
build the equivilent of two pyramids in the twenty-year time frame. (221)
The
French architect Jean-Pierre Houdin who claims ramps were used inside of the
pyramid proposed a variation on the ramp theory. Houdini believes that ramps
may have been used externally in the initial stages of construction but, as the
pyramid grew taller, work was done internally. The quarried stones were brought
in through the entrance and moved up the ramps to their position. This, Houdini
claims, would account for the shafts one finds inside the pyramid. This theory,
however, does not account for the weight of the stones or the number of workers
on the ramp required moving them up an angle inside the pyramid and into
position.
Entrance Passage Great Pyramid of Giza
The ramp
theory in either of these forms fails to explain how the pyramid was built
while a much more satisfactory possibility rests right below the monument: the
high water table of the Giza plateau. Engineer Robert Carson, in his work The
Great Pyramid: The Inside Story, suggests that the pyramid was built using
water power. Carson also suggests the use of ramps but in a much more cogent
fashion: the interior ramps were supplemented by hydraulic power from below and
hoists from above.
Although
the Egyptians had no knowledge of a crane as one would understand that
mechanism in the present day, they did have the shaduf, a long pole with a
bucket and rope at one end and counter-weight at the other, typically used for
drawing water from a well. Hydraulic power from below, coupled with hoists from
above could have moved the stones throughout the interior of the pyramid and
this would also account for the shafts and spaces one finds in the monument
which other theories have failed to fully account for.
It is
abundantly clear that the water table at Giza is still quite high in the
present day and was higher in the past. Egyptologist Zahi Hawass, writing on
his excavation of the Osiris Shaft near the Great Pyramid in 1999, notes how
"the excavation proved to be very challenging mainly due to the dangerous
nature of the work caused by the high water table" (381). In the same
article, Hawass notes how, in 1945, guides at Giza were regularly swimming in
the waters of this underground shaft and that "the rising water table in the
shaft prevented scholars from studying it further" (379).
Further,
earlier attempts to excavate the Osiris Shaft - by Selim Hassan in the 1930's -
and observations (though no excavation) of the shaft by Abdel Moneim Abu Bakr
in the 1940's - also make note of this same high water table. Geological
surveys have determined that the Giza plateau and surrounding region was much
more fertile in the time of the Old Kingdom than it is today and that the water
table would have been higher.
Considering
this, Carson's theory of water power used in building the pyramid makes the
most sense. Carson claims the monument "could only be constructed by means
of hydraulic power; that a hydraulic transportation system was set up inside
the Great Pyramid" (5). Harnessing the power of the high water table, the
ancient builders could have constructed the pyramid much more reasonably than
by some form of exterior ramping system.
.webp)
Interior Passage, Great Pyramid of Giza
John &Edgar Norton Public Domain
The ramp
theory in either of these forms fails to explain how the pyramid was built
while a much more satisfactory possibility rests right below the monument: the
high water table of the Giza plateau. Engineer Robert Carson, in his work The
Great Pyramid: The Inside Story, suggests that the pyramid was built using
water power. Carson also suggests the use of ramps but in a much more cogent
fashion: the interior ramps were supplemented by hydraulic power from below and
hoists from above.
Although
the Egyptians had no knowledge of a crane as one would understand that
mechanism in the present day, they did have the shaduf, a long pole with a
bucket and rope at one end and counter-weight at the other, typically used for
drawing water from a well. Hydraulic power from below, coupled with hoists from
above could have moved the stones throughout the interior of the pyramid and
this would also account for the shafts and spaces one finds in the monument
which other theories have failed to fully account for.
It is
abundantly clear that the water table at Giza is still quite high in the
present day and was higher in the past. Egyptologist Zahi Hawass, writing on
his excavation of the Osiris Shaft near the Great Pyramid in 1999, notes how
"the excavation proved to be very challenging mainly due to the dangerous
nature of the work caused by the high water table" (381). In the same
article, Hawass notes how, in 1945, guides at Giza were regularly swimming in
the waters of this underground shaft and that "the rising water table in
the shaft prevented scholars from studying it further" (379).
Further,
earlier attempts to excavate the Osiris Shaft - by Selim Hassan in the 1930's -
and observations (though no excavation) of the shaft by Abdel Moneim Abu Bakr
in the 1940's - also make note of this same high water table. Geological
surveys have determined that the Giza plateau and surrounding region was much
more fertile in the time of the Old Kingdom than it is today and that the water
table would have been higher.
Considering
this, Carson's theory of water power used in building the pyramid makes the
most sense. Carson claims the monument "could only be constructed by means
of hydraulic power; that a hydraulic transportation system was set up inside
the Great Pyramid" (5). Harnessing the power of the high water table, the
ancient builders could have constructed the pyramid much more reasonably than
by some form of exterior ramping system.
Once the interior was completed, the whole of
the pyramid was covered in white limestone which would have shone brilliantly
and been visible from every direction for miles around the site. As impressive
as the Great Pyramid is today, one must recognize that it is a monument in ruin
as the limestone long ago fell away and was utilized as building material for
the city of Cairo (just as the nearby city of ancient Memphis was).
When it
was completed, the Great Pyramid must have appeared as the most striking
creation the Egyptians had ever seen. Even today, in its greatly weathered
state, the Great Pyramid inspires awe. The sheer size and scope of the project
is literally amazing. Historian Marc van de Mieroop writes:
The size
boggles the mind: it was 146 meters high (479 feet) by 230 meters at the base
(754 feet). We estimate that it contained 2,300,000 blocks of stone with an
average weight of 2 and 3/4 tons some weighing up to 16 tons. Khufu ruled 23
years according to the Turin Royal Canon, which would mean that throughout his
reign annually 100,000 blocks - daily about 285 blocks or one every two minutes
of daylight - had to be quarried, transported, dressed, and put in place...The
construction was almost faultless in design. The sides were oriented exactly
toward the cardinal points and were at precise 90-degree angles. (58)
The
workers who accomplished this were skilled and unskilled laborers hired by the
state for the project. These workers either volunteered their efforts to pay
off a debt, for community service, or were compensated for their time. Although
slavery was an institution practiced in ancient Egypt, no slaves, Hebrew or
otherwise, were used in creating the monument. Brier and Hobbs explain the
logistics of the operation:
Were it
not for the two months every year when the Nile's water covered Egypt's
farmland, idling virtually the entire workforce, none of this construction
would have been possible. During such times, a pharaoh offered food for work
and the promise of a favored treatment in the afterworld where he would rule
just as he did in this world. For two months annually, workmen gathered by the
tens of thousands from all over the country to transport the blocks a permanent
crew had quarried during the rest of the year. Overseers organized the men into
teams to transport the stones on sleds, devices better suited than wheeled vehicles
to moving weighty objects over shifting sand. A causeway, lubricated by water,
smoothed the uphill pull. No mortar was used to hold the blocks in place, only
a fit so exact that these towering structures have survived for 4,000 years.
(17-18)
The Pyramides
Oising Mulvihill CC By
The yearly inundation of the Nile River was essential for the
livelihood of the Egyptians in that it deposited rich soil from the riverbed
all across the farmlands of the shore; it also, however, made farming those
lands an impossibility during the time of the flood. During these periods, the
government provided work for the farmers through labor on their great
monuments. These were the people who did the actual, physical, work in moving
the stones, raising the obelisks, building the temples, creating the pyramids
which continue to fascinate and inspire people in the present day.
It is a disservice to their efforts and their memory, not to
mention the grand culture of the Egyptians, to
continue to insist that these structures were created by poorly treated slaves
who were forced into their condition because of ethnicity. The biblical Book of
Exodus is a cultural myth purposefully created to distinguish one group of people living in the land of Canaan from others and should not be regarded as history.
The Great Pyramid as Tomb
Granite blok seal chamber's Queen
Chamber's King
.jpg)
Reine niche
.jpg)
Ilustration descripcion of Egypt
All of this effort went to creating a grand tomb for the king
who, as mediator between the gods and the people, was thought to be deserving
of the finest of tombs. Theories regarding the original purpose of the Great
Pyramid range from the fanciful to the absurd, and may be investigated
elsewhere, but the culture which produced the monument would have regarded it
as a tomb, an eternal home for the king.
Tombs which have been excavated throughout Egypt, from the most
modest to the rich example of Tutankhamun's - along with other physical
evidence - make clear the ancient Egyptian belief in a life after death and the
concern for the soul's welfare in this new world. Grave goods were always
placed in the tomb of the deceased as well as, in wealthier tombs, inscriptions
and paintings on the walls (known as the Pyramid Texts, in some cases). The
Great Pyramid is simply the grandest form of one of these tombs.
Arguments against the Great Pyramid as a tomb cite the fact that
no mummies or grave goods have ever been found inside. This argument willfully
ignores the plentiful evidence of grave robbing from ancient times to the
present. Egyptologists from the 19th century onwards have recognized that the
Great Pyramid was looted in antiquity and, most likely, during the time of the
New Kingdom (c. 1570-1069 BCE) when the Giza necropolis was replaced by the
area now known as The Valley of the Kings near Thebes.
This is not to suggest that Giza was forgotten, there is ample
evidence of New Kingdom pharaohs such as Ramesses the Great (r. 1279-1213 BCE)
taking great interest in the site. Rameses II had a small temple built at Giza
in front of the Sphinx as a token of honor and it was Rameses II's fourth son,
Khaemweset, who devoted himself to preserving the site. Khaemweset never ruled
Egypt but was a crown prince whose efforts to restore the monuments of the past
are well documented. He is, in fact, considered the world's "first
Egyptologist" for his work in restoration, preservation, and recording of
ancient monuments and especially for his work at Giza. This complex of
underground chambers was most likely dug, as Hawass contends, in honor of the
god Osiris and may or may not have been where the king Khufu was originally
laid to rest. Herodotus mentions the Osiris Shaft (though not by that name,
which was only given to it recently by Hawass) in writing of Khufu's burial
chamber which was said to be surrounded by water.
Excavations of the shaft and the chambers have recovered
artifacts dating from the Old Kingdom through the Third Intermediate Period but
no tunnels branching out beneath the plateau. Osiris, as lord of the dead,
would certainly have been honored at Giza and underground chambers recognizing
him as ruler in the afterlife were not uncommon throughout Egypt's history.
Although the Great Pyramid of Giza, and the other smaller
pyramids, temples, monuments, and tombs there, continued to be respected
throughout Egypt's history, the site fell into decline after the Roman
occupation and then annexation of the country in 30 BCE. The Romans
concentrated their energies on the city of Alexandria and the abundant crops
the country offered, making Egypt into Rome's "bread basket", as the
phrase goes.
The site was more or less neglected until Napoleon's Egyptian
Campaign of 1798-1801 during which he brought along his team of scholars and
scientists to document ancient Egyptian culture and monuments. Napoleon's work
in Egypt attracted others to the country who then inspired still others to
visit, make their own observations, and conduct their own excavations.
The Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World
Throughout the 19th century, ancient Egypt became increasingly
the object of interest for people around the world. Professional and amateur
archaeologists descended upon the country seeking to exploit or explore the
ancient culture for their own ends or in the interests of science and
knowledge. The Great Pyramid was first fully excavated professionally by the
British archaeologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie whose work on the monument
lay the foundation for any others who followed up to the present day.
Flinders Petrie was obviously interested in exploring every
nuance of the Great Pyramid but not at the expense of the monument itself. His
excavations were performed with great care in an effort to preserve the
historical authenticity of the work he was examining. Although this may seem a
common sense approach in the modern day, many European explorers before
Flinders Petrie, archaeologists professional and amateur, brushed aside any
concerns of preservation in pursuing their goal of unearthing ancient treasure
troves and bringing antiquities back to their patrons. Flinders Petrie
established the protocol regarding ancient monuments in Egypt which is still
adhered to in the present day. His vision inspired those who came after him and
it is largely due to his efforts that people today can still admire and
appreciate the monument known as the Great Pyramid of Giza
A restored Khufu
ship was once displayed at the Giza Solar boat museum and is now relocated to the Grand Egyptian Museum.
Rediscovery
Portrait
of Cyriacus of Ancona, fresco by Benozzo Gozzoli, 1459
During
the period of Humanism, a new interest in the ancient world arose, which was
rediscovered mainly through the study of the texts of classical authors;
Cyriacus of Ancona, the founding father of modern classical archaeology,[97]
distinguished himself from other humanists because he combined the study of
ancient texts with the search for material evidence, such as statues, epigraphs
and monuments, reporting information about them in his travel diaries (the
Commentarii) and in his letters. For this reason, in 1435, he went to Egypt and
reached the Giza plateau after sailing on the Nile; Comparing what he saw with
his reading of the second book of the "Histories" by Herodotus, he
rediscovered the true nature of the Great Pyramid and correcting centuries of
misunderstandings.
Cyriacus
of Ancona thus definitively refuted the false identification of the Great
Pyramid with one of the Joseph's Granaries and left several drawings of the
monument and an account, reported in his Commentarii. Thanks to his numerous
travels in Greece and Asia Minor, he was also able to testify that the pyramids
of Giza were the only one of the Seven Wonders of the World to have survived
the centuries. Through the writings of Ciriaco, this news spread first in
Italian humanist circles and then among European scholars.
Bibliography
About the Author
Joshua J. Mark
Joshua J. Mark
Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and
Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he
taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled
extensively and lived in Greece and Germany.
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Questions & Answers
Who was the Great Pyramid built for?
The Great Pyramid of Giza was built as a tomb for the king
Khufu, second king of the 4th dynasty of Egypt.
Why was the Great Pyramid built?
Scholars and historians generally agree the Great Pyramid of
Giza was built as a tomb.
How was the Great Pyramid of Giza built?
This question is still debated by scholars but it may have been
built using hydraulics which drew on the high water table of the Giza plateau.
Who was the first modern-day archaeologist to excavate the Great
Pyramid?
The first modern-day excavation of the Great Pyramid was conducted
by Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie in 1880.
Editor note: There are images from another sources.
With affection,
Ruben
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